I have been a developmental education instructor for the past four years. I have been collecting data on the history of developmental education for the past few years. I will post what I have gathered so far here, in case it is of interest to anyone who reads this blog.
History of Remedial Programs
Remedial education has been identified by various terms, including academic preparatory studies, learning assistance, compensatory education, and developmental education. Although there is a common misconception that remediation is a new trend within postsecondary environments, college-level developmental programs have existed for decades. Arendale (2005) contends “developmental education and learning assistance programs have been integral and widespread to American higher education since its inception” (p. 71). Stephens (2001) argues “the fact remains that there was never a golden age when all students came to college ready to do college work” (p. 12). Sources such as the ASHE Higher Education Report (2010) and Arendale (2002) have identified six phases of remedial and learning assistance in the United States, ranging from tutoring services to developmental education to campus-wide learning centers (Table 1).
Table 1: History of Remedial Services in U.S. Institutions
| Time Period |
Types of Remedial Services |
| 1600s to the 1820s |
Tutoring programs offered assistance in Latin and Greek. |
| 1830s to the 1860s |
Universities developed academic preparatory programs. The first department for remediation was developed at the University of Wisconsin in 1849. |
| 1870s to the 1940s |
Most colleges began to offer preparatory courses and remedial education to assist underprepared students. |
| 1940s to the 1970s |
Universities developed learning assistance and compensatory programs from civil rights legislation. |
| 1970s to the 1990s |
Developmental education programs provided support for students in the development of personal and academic skills. |
| 1990s to Present |
Responsibility for remediation is shifted to community colleges. Many four-year institutions transform developmental departments into learning centers and tutoring services. |
When America’s first postsecondary institutions were established, such as Harvard in 1636 and Yale in 1701, a small number of white male students from wealthy families enrolled in higher education. In order to generate funds through tuition fees, these institutions would often admit students who were underprepared for college courses (ASHE Higher Education Report, 2010). Unable to meet the foreign language requirements, which necessitated fluency in Greek and Latin, most students attended dame schools or received private tutoring in Latin and Greek (Arendale, 2002). At Harvard, many college professors lectured in Latin; therefore, Harvard required remedial studies in Latin for the majority of its students (Boylan & White, 1987).
The term “academic preparatory program” came into existence in the early 1800’s when colleges provided high school equivalent programs in English and mathematics (Arendale, 2005). Universities began to develop on-campus academic preparatory academies in 1830 when New York University created an early prototype that provided basic instruction in English literature, mathematics, physical science, and philosophy (Curti & Carstenten, 1949).
Postsecondary remedial programs grew out of the preparatory academies of the 19th century. In 1849 the first on-campus academic department for remediation was developed at the University of Wisconsin (Curti & Carstenten, 1949). Faculty were hired to teach remedial courses in writing, reading, and arithmetic. There was a great need for this program, as 290 of the 331 admitted students enrolled in at least one remedial course; however, the program had a short and controversial history. Administrators at the University of Wisconsin closed the department in 1880 due to objections from faculty outside of the department (Curti & Carstenten, 1949). “Faculty members from outside the department demanded its elimination because of the fear of stigma for the university” (ASHE Higher Education Report, 2010, p. 29). Yet, most U.S. colleges put this model into practice by the late 1800s (Arendale, 2002).
Preparatory courses and remediation were common throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. From the 1860s through the 1960s, colleges used the term “remedial education” for programs and courses that “often focused on specific skill deficits of students and educational approaches that addressed these identified needs” (Arendale, 2005, p. 68). In response to faculty members’ concerns that many students lacked proficiency for college-level writing, in 1874 Harvard developed its first college freshmen remedial course in English (Arendale, 2002). Ignash (1997) explains that approximately 40 percent of the first-year college students had enrolled in college preparatory courses by 1894.
Remedial and preparatory programs followed a medical model by which students were “assessed for their academic weakness and then a prescriptive treatment was directed for the specific problem” (Arendale, 2005, p. 69). In 1914, the U.S. Commissioner for Education reported that a wide range of learning assistance programs, remedial classes, and tutoring services were implemented in 80 percent of postsecondary institutions (Arendale, 2002).
During the early and mid-1900s, four-year institutions began to shift remedial coursework to two-year junior colleges. State and federal appropriations provided more funding to four-year institutions, lessening the need to generate tuition revenue by admitting underprepared students (ASHE Higher Education Report, 2010). However, “compensatory education” and “learning assistance” were terms common during the 1960s in two-year and four-year institutions. Compensatory education programs were developed from civil rights legislation. These programs “described activities that remedied a previous state of discrimination” (Arendale, 2005, p. 69). During the late 1960s, learning assistance centers emerged in the college environment. These centers provided voluntary programs to assist students with academic skills without the stigma of remediation.
In the 1970s, the term “developmental education” was added as a label to combat the negative connotation that is often tied to the term “remediation” (Arendale, 2005). Developmental education is built upon the underlying assumption that all students are in a developmental process (ASHE Higher Education Report, 2010). “Proponents of developmental education view it as a more comprehensive model regarding the student because it focuses on development of the person in both the academic and affective domains” (Arendale, 2005, p. 72). These developmental programs offer courses outside of academic departments that prepare students for college writing, mathematics, and reading. Students enroll in these courses as a prerequisite to college-level courses.
The current phase of remedial education is associated with turbulence and controversy. During the 1990s, four-year institutions began a process of shifting most of the responsibility for remediation to two-year community colleges. For instance, in 2003 the University of Cincinnati closed its open admissions unit, University College, and in 2005 the University of Minnesota closed its General College in an effort to move to the upper tier of research institutions (Otte & Mlynacyrk, 2010).
The ASHE Higher Education Report (2010) found, “learning assistance activities and services have been curtailed at a growing number of four-year institutions, especially large public universities” (p. 51). Many of these programs have been cut due to scant resources and decreased operating funds due to cuts in state budgets (The ASHE Higher Education Report, 2010). Mulvey (2008) explains “In tight fiscal times, programs for under-prepared students often face severe scrutiny and draconian budget cuts. This is an ‘at risk’ population and, as such, policy makers frequently view the underprepared student population as a bad investment” (p. 81).
As a result, many four-year public institutions have turned from developmental courses to learning centers and tutoring services that serve underprepared students as well as those who do not require remediation. One positive result of this shift is that students who receive assistance from learning centers and tutoring programs often perceive these services as supplemental, and these programs, therefore, have less stigma attached to them. Students who utilize these programs also receive less negative stereotyping in contrast to students who enroll in developmental/remedial courses (ASHE Higher Education Report, 2010).
Though learning assistance centers provide support with less stigma, these services have not solved the problems that underprepared students face. It is troubling that only 49% of students who began postsecondary education in 2003-2004 earned some form of credential by June 2009, ranging from an educational certificate to a Bachelor’s degree (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Though low academic preparation is not the only factor that leads to low completion rates, it is still a problem that confronts many college students. Universities have a responsibility to provide effective services for their students; therefore, university educators and administrators must ensure that students receive the best possible support and remediation.
References
Arendale, D. (2002). Then and now: The early history of developmental education: past events and future trends. Research & Training in Developmental Education, 18(2), 3-26.
Arendale, D. (2005). Terms of endearment: Words that define and guide developmental education. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 35(2), 66-82.
ASHE Higher Education Report (2010). History of Learning Assistance in U.S. Postsecondary Education, (35)6, 23-54
Boylan, H. R., & White, W. G. (1987). Educating all the nation’s people. The historical roots of developmental education. Research in Developmental Education, 4(4), 1-4.
Mulvey, M. E. (2008). Underprepared students – a continuing challenge for higher education. Research & Teaching in Developmental Education, 24(2), 77-87.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2011). Digest of education statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d11/tables/dt11_344.asp.
Otte, G., & Mlynarczyk, R. W. (2010). The future of basic writing. Journal of basic writing, 29(1), 5-32.
Stephens, D. (2001). Increasing access: Educating underprepared students in U.S. colleges and universities past, present, and future. Retrieved from: http://faculty.etsu.edu/stephen/increasingaccess.htm.
Community College Research 